Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and the Political History of the United States
By John J. Lalor
NEITHER American nor English literature has hitherto possessed a Cyclopædia of Political Science and Political Economy. The want of a work of reference on these important branches of knowledge has long been felt, especially by lawyers, journalists, members of our state and national legislatures, and the large and intelligent class of capitalists and business men who give serious thought to the political and social questions of the day. The present work, which will be completed in three volumes, is the first to supply that want. It is also the first Political History of the United States in encyclopædic form—the first to which the reader can refer for an account of the important events or facts in our political history, as he would to a dictionary for the precise meaning of a word. The French, the Germans and even the Italians are richer in works of reference on political science and political economy than the Americans or the English. The Germans have Rotteck and Welcker’s
Staatslexikon, and Bluntschli and Brater’s
Staatswörterbuch; the French, Block’s
Dictionnaire Général de la Politique, and the celebrated
Dictionnaire de l’Economie Politique, edited by Guillaumin and Coquelin.The “Cyclopædia of Political Science, Political Economy, and of the Political History of the United States” is intended to be to the American and English reader what the above-named works are to French and German students of political science and political economy. The articles by foreigners in our work are largely translations from the
Dictionnaire de l’Economie Politique, the
Dictionnaire Général de la Politique, the
Staatswörterbuch, and original articles by Mr. T. E. Cliffe Leslie, the eminent English economist; while the American articles are by the best American and Canadian writers on political economy and political science. The task of writing the articles on the political history of the United States was confided to one person, Mr. Alexander Johnston, of Norwalk, Connecticut, thoroughness, conciseness and the absence of repetition and of redundancy being thus secured…. [From the Preface]
First Pub. Date
1881
Publisher
New York: Maynard, Merrill, and Co.
Pub. Date
1899
Comments
Originally printed in 3 volumes. Includes articles by Frédéric Bastiat, Gustave de Molinari, Henry George, J. B. Say, Francis A. Walker, and more.
Copyright
The text of this edition is in the public domain.
- Preface
- V.1, Entry 1, ABDICATION
- V.1, Entry 2, ABOLITION AND ABOLITIONISTS
- V.1, Entry 3, ABSENTEEISM
- V.1, Entry 4, ABSOLUTE POWER
- V.1, Entry 5, ABSOLUTISM
- V.1, Entry 6, ABSTENTION
- V.1, Entry 7, ABUSES IN POLITICS
- V.1, Entry 8, ABYSSINIA
- V.1, Entry 9, ACADEMIES
- V.1, Entry 10, ACADEMIES
- V.1, Entry 11, ACCLAMATION
- V.1, Entry 12, ACCUMULATION OF WEALTH
- V.1, Entry 13, ACT
- V.1, Entry 14, ADAMS
- V.1, Entry 15, ADAMS
- V.1, Entry 16, ADAMS
- V.1, Entry 17, ADAMS
- V.1, Entry 18, ADJOURNMENT
- V.1, Entry 19, ADMINISTRATION
- V.1, Entry 20, ADMINISTRATIONS
- V.1, Entry 21, AFRICA
- V.1, Entry 22, AGE
- V.1, Entry 23, AGENT
- V.1, Entry 24, AGENTS
- V.1, Entry 25, AGIO
- V.1, Entry 26, AGIOTAGE
- V.1, Entry 27, AGRICULTURE
- V.1, Entry 28, ALABAMA
- V.1, Entry 29, ALABAMA CLAIMS
- V.1, Entry 30, ALASKA
- V.1, Entry 31, ALBANY PLAN OF UNION
- V.1, Entry 32, ALBANY REGENCY
- V.1, Entry 33, ALCALDE
- V.1, Entry 34, ALCOHOL
- V.1, Entry 35, ALGERIA
- V.1, Entry 36, ALGERINE WAR
- V.1, Entry 37, ALIEN AND SEDITION LAWS
- V.1, Entry 38, ALIENS
- V.1, Entry 39, ALLEGIANCE
- V.1, Entry 40, ALLEGIANCE
- V.1, Entry 41, ALLIANCE
- V.1, Entry 42, ALLIANCE
- V.1, Entry 43, ALLOYAGE
- V.1, Entry 44, ALMANACH DE GOTHA
- V.1, Entry 45, ALSACE-LORRAINE
- V.1, Entry 46, AMBASSADOR
- V.1, Entry 47, AMBITION
- V.1, Entry 48, AMENDMENTS TO THE CONSTITUTION
- V.1, Entry 49, AMERICA
- V.1, Entry 50, AMERICAN MERCHANT MARINE
- V.1, Entry 51, AMERICAN PARTY
- V.1, Entry 52, AMERICAN WHIGS
- V.1, Entry 53, AMES
- V.1, Entry 54, AMISTAD CASE
- V.1, Entry 55, AMNESTY
- V.1, Entry 56, AMNESTY
- V.1, Entry 57, ANAM
- V.1, Entry 58, ANARCHY
- V.1, Entry 59, ANCIEN RÉGIME
- V.1, Entry 60, ANDORRA
- V.1, Entry 61, ANHALT
- V.1, Entry 62, ANNEXATION
- V.1, Entry 63, ANNEXATIONS
- V.1, Entry 64, ANTI-FEDERAL PARTY
- V.1, Entry 65, ANTI-MASONRY
- V.1, Entry 66, ANTI-NEBRASKA MEN
- V.1, Entry 67, ANTI-RENTERS
- V.1, Entry 68, ANTI-SLAVERY.
- V.1, Entry 69, APPORTIONMENT
- V.1, Entry 70, APPROPRIATION.
- V.1, Entry 71, APPROPRIATIONS
- V.1, Entry 72, ARBITRAGE
- V.1, Entry 73, ARBITRARY ARRESTS
- V.1, Entry 74, ARBITRARY POWER
- V.1, Entry 75, ARBITRATION
- V.1, Entry 76, ARCHONS
- V.1, Entry 77, AREOPAGUS.
- V.1, Entry 78, ARGENTINE CONFEDERATION
- V.1, Entry 79, ARISTOCRACY.
- V.1, Entry 80, ARISTOCRATIC AND DEMOCRATIC IDEAS.
- V.1, Entry 81, ARITHMETIC
- V.1, Entry 82, ARIZONA
- V.1, Entry 83, ARKANSAS
- V.1, Entry 84, ARMISTICE
- V.1, Entry 85, ARMIES
- V.1, Entry 86, ARMY
- V.1, Entry 87, ARTHUR
- V.1, Entry 88, ARTISANS
- V.1, Entry 89, ARYAN RACES.
- V.1, Entry 90, ASIA
- V.1, Entry 91, ASSEMBLY (IN U. S. HISTORY)
- V.1, Entry 92, ASSESSMENTS
- V.1, Entry 93, ASSIGNATS
- V.1, Entry 94, ASSOCIATION AND ASSOCIATIONS
- V.1, Entry 95, ASYLUM
- V.1, Entry 96, ATELIERS NATIONAUX
- V.1, Entry 97, ATTAINDER
- V.1, Entry 98, ATTORNEYS GENERAL
- V.1, Entry 99, AUSTRALIA
- V.1, Entry 100, AUSTRIA-HUNGARY
- V.1, Entry 101, AUTHORITY
- V.1, Entry 102, AUTHORS
- V.1, Entry 103, AUTOCRAT
- V.1, Entry 104, AUTONOMY.
- V.1, Entry 105, AYES AND NOES
- V.1, Entry 106, BADEN
- V.1, Entry 107, BALANCE OF POWER
- V.1, Entry 108, BALANCE OF TRADE
- V.1, Entry 109, BALLOT
- V.1, Entry 110, BANK CONTROVERSIES
- V.1, Entry 111, BANKING
- V.1, Entry 112, BANK NOTES.
- V.1, Entry 113, BANKRUPTCY.
- V.1, Entry 114, BANKRUPTCY, National.
- V.1, Entry 115, BANKS.
- V.1, Entry 116, BANKS, Functions of.
- V.1, Entry 117, BANKS OF ISSUE
- V.1, Entry 118, BANKS, Advantages of Savings.
- V.1, Entry 119, BANKS, History and Management of Savings,
- V.1, Entry 120, BAR
- V.1, Entry 121, BARNBURNERS
- V.1, Entry 122, BARRICADE
- V.1, Entry 123, BARTER.
- V.1, Entry 124, BASTILLE
- V.1, Entry 125, BAVARIA
- V.1, Entry 126, BELGIUM
- V.1, Entry 127, BELL
- V.1, Entry 128, BELLIGERENTS
- V.1, Entry 129, BENTON
- V.1, Entry 130, BERLIN DECREE
- V.1, Entry 131, BILL
- V.1, Entry 132, BILL OF EXCHANGE
- V.1, Entry 133, BILL OF RIGHTS
- V.1, Entry 134, BILLION
- V.1, Entry 135, BILLS
- V.1, Entry 136, BI-METALLISM.
- V.1, Entry 137, BIRNEY
- V.1, Entry 138, BLACK COCKADE
- V.1, Entry 139, BLACK CODE.
- V.1, Entry 140, BLACK REPUBLICAN.
- V.1, Entry 141, BLAINE
- V.1, Entry 142, BLAIR
- V.1, Entry 143, BLOCKADE
- V.1, Entry 144, BLOODY BILL
- V.1, Entry 145, BLUE LAWS
- V.1, Entry 146, BLUE LIGHT
- V.1, Entry 147, BOARD OF TRADE.
- V.1, Entry 148, BOLIVIA
- V.1, Entry 149, BOOTY
- V.1, Entry 150, BORDER RUFFIANS
- V.1, Entry 151, BORDER STATES
- V.1, Entry 152, BOURGEOISIE
- V.1, Entry 153, BOUTWELL
- V.1, Entry 154, BRAHMANISM.
- V.1, Entry 155, BRAZIL
- V.1, Entry 156, BRECKENRIDGE
- V.1, Entry 157, BROAD SEAL WAR
- V.1, Entry 158, BROKERS
- V.1, Entry 159, BROOKS
- V.1, Entry 160, BROWN
- V.1, Entry 161, BUCHANAN
- V.1, Entry 162, BUCKSHOT WAR
- V.1, Entry 163, BUCKTAILS
- V.1, Entry 164, BUDDHISM
- V.1, Entry 165, BUDGET
- V.1, Entry 166, BULL
- V.1, Entry 167, BUNDESRATH
- V.1, Entry 168, BUREAUCRACY
- V.1, Entry 169, BURGESSES
- V.1, Entry 170, BURLINGAME
- V.1, Entry 171, BURR
- V.1, Entry 172, BUTLER, Benj. F.
- V.1, Entry 173, BUTLER, William Orlando
- V.1, Entry 174, CACHET
- V.1, Entry 175, CÆSARISM
- V.1, Entry 176, CALENDAR
- V.1, Entry 177, CALHOUN
- V.1, Entry 178, CALIFORNIA
- V.1, Entry 179, CANADA
- V.1, Entry 180, CANALS
- V.1, Entry 181, CANON LAW
- V.1, Entry 182, CAPITAL
- V.1, Entry 183, CAPITAL
- V.1, Entry 184, CAPITULATION
- V.1, Entry 185, CARICATURE
- V.1, Entry 186, CARPET BAGGERS
- V.1, Entry 187, CARTEL
- V.1, Entry 188, CASS
- V.1, Entry 189, CASUS BELLI
- V.1, Entry 190, CAUCUS
- V.1, Entry 191, CAUCUS SYSTEM
- V.1, Entry 192, CAUSE AND EFFECT IN POLITICS.
- V.1, Entry 193, CELIBACY, Clerical
- V.1, Entry 194, CELIBACY, Political Aspects of.
- V.1, Entry 195, CELTS.
- V.1, Entry 196, CENSURE.
- V.1, Entry 197, CENSURE OF MORALS.
- V.1, Entry 198, CENSURES
- V.1, Entry 199, CENSUS.
- V.1, Entry 200, CENTRALIZATION and DECENTRALIZATION.
- V.1, Entry 201, CEREMONIAL
- V.1, Entry 202, CHAMBER OF COMMERCE.
- V.1, Entry 203, CHARGÉ D'AFFAIRES.
- V.1, Entry 204, CHARITY, Private.
- V.1, Entry 205, CHARITY, Public.
- V.1, Entry 206, CHARITY, State.
- V.1, Entry 207, CHASE
- V.1, Entry 208, CHECKS AND BALANCES.
- V.1, Entry 209, CHEROKEE CASE
- V.1, Entry 210, CHESAPEAKE CASE.
- V.1, Entry 211, CHILI.
- V.1, Entry 212, CHINA
- V.1, Entry 213, CHINESE IMMIGRATION.
- V.1, Entry 214, CHIVALRY.
- V.1, Entry 215, CHRISTIANITY.
- V.1, Entry 216, CHURCH AND STATE
- V.1, Entry 217, CHURCH
- V.1, Entry 218, CHURCH
- V.1, Entry 219, CHURCH
- V.1, Entry 220, CHURCHES AND RELIGIONS
- V.1, Entry 221, CHURCHES
- V.1, Entry 222, CINCINNATI
- V.1, Entry 223, CIPHER DISPATCHES AND DECIPHERMENT
- V.1, Entry 224, CIRCULATION OF WEALTH.
- V.1, Entry 225, CITIES
- V.1, Entry 226, CITIES AND TOWNS.
- V.1, Entry 227, CIVIL ADMINISTRATION
- V.1, Entry 228, CIVIL LIST.
- V.1, Entry 229, CIVIL RIGHTS BILL
- V.1, Entry 230, CIVIL SERVICE REFORM
- V.1, Entry 231, CIVILIZATION
- V.1, Entry 232, CLAY
- V.1, Entry 233, CLEARING, AND CLEARING HOUSES
- V.1, Entry 234, CLERICALISM
- V.1, Entry 235, CLIENTÈLE AND CUSTOM
- V.1, Entry 236, CLIMATE
- V.1, Entry 237, CLIMATE
- V.1, Entry 238, CLINTON
- V.1, Entry 239, CLINTON, George
- V.1, Entry 240, CL�TURE
- V.1, Entry 241, COASTING TRADE
- V.1, Entry 242, COCHIN CHINA
- V.1, Entry 243, COINAGE
- V.1, Entry 244, COLFAX
- V.1, Entry 245, COLONIZATION SOCIETY
- V.1, Entry 246, COLORADO
- V.1, Entry 247, COLOMBIA
- V.1, Entry 248, COMMERCE.
- V.1, Entry 249, COMMERCIAL CRISES
- V.1, Entry 250, COMMISSION
- V.1, Entry 251, COMMITTEES
- V.1, Entry 252, COMMON LAW
- V.1, Entry 253, COMMONS
- V.1, Entry 254, COMMUNE
- V.1, Entry 255, COMMUNISM
- V.1, Entry 256, COMPETITION.
- V.1, Entry 257, COMPROMISES
- V.1, Entry 258, COMPULSORY CIRCULATION
- V.1, Entry 259, COMPULSORY EDUCATION
- V.1, Entry 260, CONCESSION
- V.1, Entry 261, CONCLAVE.
- V.1, Entry 262, CONCLUSUM
- V.1, Entry 284, CONSTITUTION OF THE UNITED STATES
- V.1, Entry 301, CONVENTION
- V.1, Entry 375, DISTILLED SPIRITS
- V.1, Entry 384, DOMINION OF CANADA
- V.2, Entry 7, EDUCATION
- V.2, Entry 18, EMBARGO
- V.2, Entry 33, EXCHANGE
- V.2, Entry 35, EXCHANGE OF PRISONERS
- V.2, Entry 37, EXCHANGE OF WEALTH
- V.2, Entry 121, GREAT BRITAIN
- V.2, Entry 130, HABEAS CORPUS
- V.2, Entry 180, INDUSTRIAL ARBITRATION AND CONCILIATION
- V.2, Entry 225, JUSTICE, Department of
- V.2, Entry 246, LAW
- V.2, Entry 364, NEW GRANADA
- V.2, Entry 379, NULLIFICATION
- V.3, Entry 4, OCEANICA
- V.3, Entry 29, PARIS MONETARY CONFERENCE
- V.3, Entry 32, PARLIAMENTARY LAW.
- V.3, Entry 116, RACES OF MANKIND
- V.3, Entry 137, REPUBLICAN PARTY
- V.3, Entry 155, ROMAN CATHOLIC CHURCH.
- V.3, Entry 195, SLAVERY
- V.3, Entry 278, UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
- V. 2, List of Writers
- V. 3, List of Writers
- V. 3, List of American Writers
COCHIN CHINA
COCHIN CHINA. The empire of Anam forms part of the peninsula beyond the Ganges. It extends from 9° to 22° north latitude, and from 100° to 107° cast longitude. It is bounded on the north by China, on the east and south by the sea, and on the west by the kingdom of Siam. It is composed of three grand political divisions: Tong King in the north, Cambodia in the centre, and Cochin China proper. Between Tong-King and Cambodia is a vast stretch of territory called the kingdom of Laos, which is tributary both to Cochin China and to the kingdom of Siam. A chain of mountains, beginning in the lofty peaks of Thibet, runs north and south parallel with the sea. Several rivers water the different parts of the country. The most important of these is Mekong, which, rising in the Chinese province of Yun-nan, runs through Laos, Cambodia and lower Cochin China, and empties into the sea by several different mouths. It was opposite one of these mouths that Camoëns was shipwrecked about the year 1561, returning from Macao to Goa, and saved the manuscript of his poem. The Lusiad, by holding it above the water with one hand, while with the other he swam toward the banks of the Mekong.
—We have no exact information as to the number of inhabitants in the Anamite empire; we only know that the country, especially in the interior, is relatively much more thinly settled than China. The people of Cochin China very closely resemble the Chinese: they possess almost the same characteristic traits, the same manners, the same customs, the same written language, though with a different pronunciation. The greater part of them profess Buddhism.
—The country is fertile, especially in the provinces of lower Cochin China Rice, sugar-cane and the mulberry grow there in abundance; still the population is generally poor and miserable. There is scarcely any foreign commerce, and very little progress has been made in industry.
—At the beginning of each reign the new emperor sends an embassy to Peking; this is rather the rendering of a traditional homage than the solicitation of official investiture. Although, in the proud language of the court of Peking, the empire of Anam is still numbered among the states tributary to the Celestial empire, the bond of vassalage has been gradually weakened, and to day the destiny of Cochin China is independent of that of China. Nevertheless, the similarity of their institutions and manners, and their repugnance for all contact with Europeans, have served to maintain between the two countries a sort of political solidarity, Cochin China experiencing the consequence of the conflicts which disturb its old suzerain. In Cochin China, as in China, the government, founded on despotism and served by a powerful hierarchical organization, has witnessed the gradual exhaustion of its principal resources, and seems to be hurrying with mighty strides toward dissolution. If we may judge of the condition of the country from the accounts left us by the Catholic missionaries who penetrated into Cochin China in the seventeenth century, it then showed signs of prosperity and almost a certain air of grandeur. Even allowing for the pleasing illusions of these first apostles, we may believe that such was the case. All these oriental countries have had their days of splendor and civilization. Judging them such as they appear to us to day, stripped of the prestige of remoteness, and so easily penetrated by European conquest, we can
discover in them nothing but symptoms of decrepitude.
—The annals of Cochin China date back to a period anterior to the Christian era. But we may say that this is a fact of scarcely any importance. Notwithstanding the care with which some learned men have endeavored to compile a chronological list of the different dynasties, no great reliance can be placed on the discoveries of such oriental erudition. Cochin China has sometimes been directly subject to the Chinese empire, sometimes separated from it; it has been frequently at war with the kingdom of Siam, with Cambodia and Tong-King; it has had its periods of revolution and insurrection: this is, in brief, what we can glean from the historical recitals relating to this country. In the second half of the thirteenth century, Marco Polo directed his steps toward some provinces of Cochin China, especially Tsiampa; but his very incomplete account throws only an uncertain light on the political state of the empire of Anam. We do not receive any more exact notions of the country until the period when the Catholic missionaries, first those from Portugal, then from France, penetrated into Cochin China. These first communications date from the end of the sixteenth century. Europe had no direct relations with the empire of Anam except in the second half of the eighteenth century, which was owing to the influence that the bishop of Adran had acquired at the court of the emperor Gya-long, an influence which he endeavored to use for the advancement of the political interests of France.
—Gya-long had had to contend, from the very commencement of his reign, against a formidable insurrection, which had for a time deprived him of his crown. Following the counsels of the bishop of Adran (Monseigneur Pigneaux), he resolved to invoke the support and protection of France, and for this purpose he sent an embassy to Louis XVI. This embassy, which was accompanied by the bishop of Adran, was favorably received at the court of Versailles. Independently of the Catholic religious interest it was greatly to the political interest also of France to cultivate relations with the countries of the extreme east, in which she was outstripped by England, Spain and the Low Countries. A treaty was therefore signed at Versailles Nov. 28, 1787, by de Montmorin, then minister of foreign affairs, and by the bishop of Adran as the representative of Gya-long, in virtue of which the emperor of Cochin China ceded absolutely to France the port of Tourane, and the island of Poulo-Condor, on condition that the French king would send without delay a squadron and a body of troops to assist Gya-long in reconquering his states. Orders were immediately issued to the governor of the French establishments in India for the carrying out of this agreement; but the revolutionary disturbances which broke out soon after in France and throughout Europe interrupted the preparations for the projected expedition. Some officers, and a small number of volunteers, recruited by the bishop of Adran, went to Cochin China, where they disciplined the small army of Gya-long after the manner of European armies, and enabled that monarch to subdue the rebels. The emperor ever remembered the service they had rendered him; and the bishop of Adran and the French officers, raised to the dignity of mandarins, enjoyed the highest favor at his court. To the end of his reign (1820) Gya-long protected Europeans, and favored the propagation of the Catholic religion.
—His example was not followed in this by his successors, Ming-Mang (1820-41), Thieu-tri (1841-7) and Tu-duc. The Europeans were driven from the country, and the Christians were subjected to the most cruel persecution, inspired not by religious fanaticism, but, as in China, by political feeling. Ming-Mang feared that Catholicism might lead to European conquest, and he meant to absolutely forbid all entrance of strangers into his kingdom. At different intervals, from 1820 to 1855, France and England sent ships of war into the bay of Tourane, either to open commercial negotiations in an amicable manner, or to protest against the ill-treatment inflicted on missionaries and on the Christians. These attempts, sustained at times by the voice of cannon, were of no avail. Shut up in his capital of Hué-fou, the emperor felt that he was beyond the reach of European vengeance, and did not trouble himself about the destruction of the miserable town of Tourane.
—Nevertheless this state of things could not continue. The number of martyrs increased; several French priests, and a Spanish bishop, Mgr. Diaz, having been put to death, the French and Spanish governments combined to send an army corps into Cochin China. This expedition, under the command of vice-admiral Rigault de Genouilly, took possession of Tourane in 1858, and of Saïgon in 1859. Tourane, a very unhealthy seaport, and of no commercial importance, was soon evacuated, and all the efforts of the allies were directed against Saïgon, the situation of which, at the mouth of the river Mekon, seemed to have great natural resources. The Cochin Chinese were successively driven out of the provinces adjoining Saïgon, and, in June, 1859, the emperor Tu-duc consented to sign a treaty of peace, which ceded to France the provinces of Bién-hoa, Saïgon and My-tho. The French colonies now seem firmly established in this part of Cochin China. The commercial situation between India and China is a favorable one; the soil is fertile; the native population, to whom are added a great number of Chinese immigrants, furnish the labor for its cultivation; finally, the revenues of the new colony are increasing. The government of Cochin China, after having endeavored to disturb the new French establishment by insurrections, seems to have become resigned to the loss of its southern provinces.
—Thus has the empire of Anam been forced to bow before Europe, and been drawn, like China, into a political movement entirely new to it. Will its contact with strangers and the contiguity of a French colony
instill new life into it, or will they deal it its death blow? This is a question we may ask today of all the old nations of the extreme east, into which European civilization has at last determined to enter and to extend its rule.
—BIBLIOGRAPHY: Veuillot,
La Cochinchine et la Torquin, Paris, 1859; Pallu,
Histoire de l’expédition de Cochinchine en 1864, Paris, 1864; Aubaret,
Histoire de la Basse Cochinchine: Paris, 1867; Taillefer,
La Cochinchine, ce qu ‘elle est. ce qu ‘elle sera, Deux ans de séjour dans ce pays, de 1853
à 1855, Perigueux, 1865; Bouilleoaun,
L’Annam et le Cambodge, Paris, 1875.
C. LAVOLLÉE.